苏维埃太祖列宁的家裏有喝蒙古奶茶的习俗，因为列宁的祖父母都是蒙古人，祖父是尼可莱·瓦西列维奇·兀尔阿诺夫（Nikolai Vassilievich Ulyanov），出生在一个卡尔梅克蒙古农民家庭。祖母是来自阿斯特拉罕的卡尔梅克蒙古女人安娜·丝米尔诺娃（Anna Alexeevna Smirnova）。列宁的高颧骨和细眼睛是几乎每本列宁传记都要提到的。　　


（俄罗斯---蒙古帝国的继承者） 
モンゴル帝国を継承したロシア 

蒙 古人是史上第一个把间谍提升到国家利益高度的民族。每逢战前，他们都会派出间谍，尽量收集有关敌人的道路、河流、防御工事、政治和经济状况等方面的 情报。他们还派间谍散布关於蒙古势力强大、任何抵抗都无济於事的流言，使敌人士气低落。13世纪的蒙古人之所以会战无不胜，间谍在其中立下了不少功劳。在 蒙古统治期间。俄罗斯全盘传承了蒙古间谍制度，把间谍作为服务君主的工具。伊凡四世在位后期，曾一度实行间谍恐怖统治，他组成了一支人数为1000人的 “特辖军”。后来彼得一世设立了“秘密办公厅”，负责抓捕和审查政治犯，从而开始了秘密侦探和间谍制度。“秘密办公厅”与之前的蒙古间谍和之后苏联时期的 “克格勃”是一脉相承的。 而蒙古帝国派往各地的达鲁花赤（蒙古语“镇守官”）即是后来苏联党委书记的前身。　 　

ロ シアでも、キリス ト教の司祭が书きました。ギリシアからキリスト教が入ってキリル文字を使うようになっていたけど、まだロシア语の文法もちゃんとない 时代。だから、変なロシア语なんです。しかも断片的な文献しかない。最近の日本人の研究で、ドイツ骑士団に胜ったからロシアの英雄と言われるアレクサンド ル?ネフスキーは、モンゴル人にはペコペコしていたことがわかりました。自分の兄弟に胜つためにモンゴル人に贡ぎ物を持って行って、モンゴルからお姫様を 嫁にもらって、それでようやく支配者になったらしい。モンゴル人は现地の支配には口出しせず、徴税だけしました。だから、じつはモンゴルとはうまくやっ て、モンゴルの军事力を背景に税金を取って恨まれたようですよ。 もちろん今のロシア人は、おれたちは本来イタリアよりも早くルネッサンスが出来たはずなのに、モンゴルのせいで町が焼かれて遅れたと书くんですけど、ウク ライナ人やフィンランド人は、ロシアに対抗心があるので、别の见方をします。ロシアはモンゴルが来たおかげで、今の中近东、イスラムの贸易圏に入って発展 したのです。だって、スラブって奴隷（スレイブ）の语源ですからね。大帝国の一部になったおかげで蜜蝋や琥珀が売れて、イスラムの文化がロシアに入ったん です。

过去的俄罗斯史学界通常把蒙古人统治的两百多年的时间称为“鞑靼枷锁”，但 对这一时期的看法却 不尽相同。其中，有些人对 蒙古的统治持全盘否定态度。他们认为 “蒙古的统治，是俄罗斯历史上最具悲剧性的一页，使俄罗斯脱离了欧洲大家庭”。但是，也有人看法不同，如18—19世纪的历史学家卡拉姆津，就主张“莫斯 科的强大应该归功於蒙古”。在当代学者中，以古米廖夫为代表，认为所谓的“鞑靼枷锁”并不存在。相反，“俄罗斯与蒙古的联合，使俄罗斯在与西方的争斗中， 立於不败之地”。 今天，世界上最大的国家俄罗斯的形成有明显的当年蒙古的因素。1920年代，俄罗斯的欧亚主义就说：“俄罗斯族人与西方不相干，与斯拉夫 （Slavdom）也无关。”克柳切夫斯基和他的学生认为俄罗斯的统一，蒙古至少有一半功劳。另一位欧亚主义哲学家特鲁别茨科伊在他的经典著作《论俄罗斯 文化中的图兰成份》指出莫斯科要感谢蒙古统治，俄罗斯政府制度也是蒙古式的。从本质上说，俄罗斯是一个东正教蒙古国家。俄罗斯人的日常生活深受蒙古影响， 有大量蒙古语借字、邮政、税收、服饰也受蒙古影响，军法制度也是从蒙古学的。

值得 一提的是，俄罗斯东 正教也是在蒙古人的统治下壮大 的。蒙古人来到俄罗斯之前，俄罗斯东正教堂不到100座，在蒙古人统治期间增加至300余座。蒙古人实行政教合一，巧妙地通过教会对俄罗斯各地发号施令， 教会也因此获得免税权。在蒙古势力往俄罗斯西北延伸时，莫斯科和东正教会是两大助力。1327年，伊凡一世的对手亚历山大因背叛蒙古人而被追捕，逃至普斯 柯夫，普斯柯夫民众为了保护亚历山大而战，可是就在战争一触即发时，东正教会竟然宣称支持异教徒的蒙古人，并将亚历山大和普斯柯夫民众逐出了教会。


こ の写真はモスクワのクレムリンにあるキリスト教の寺院ですけど、このネギ坊主の尖塔はどうみたってイスラム风でしょ？　もともとモスクワのツァーリ（皇 帝）の奥さんもみんなチンギス?ハーン家のお姫様だったんです。东西に広がったモンゴル帝国は、西方ではイスラム文化を取り入れました。20世纪初めのロ シアのオペラ、リムスキー?コルサコフの「金鶏（キンケイ）」に出てくるシェマハの女王の故郷はカスピ海ですが、天幕に住んでいます。ロシアの民族衣装の 长いドレスは、トルコの民族衣装と似ていますが、トルコもモンゴル帝国の子孙なんですね。裾が长くてスリットの入ったドレスは、游牧民の着る服です。马に 乗るときに邪魔にならず、寝るときは布団になり、草原でトイレするときに隠してくれる。

蒙古的喀山汗国、阿斯特拉汗国、西伯利亚汗国、克裏米亚汗国、诺盖汗国、蓝帐汗国、白帐汗国的蒙古贵族们后来供职於俄罗斯公国，成为很多大公、王公贵族的姓氏起源。俄罗斯曾有蒙古血缘的大公92个，50个王，13个公侯、300多个贵族姓氏。


これが、母方がモンゴル人のイワン雷帝の颜です。この时代までは、ロシアはまだモンゴルから派生した国家の一つで、でもキリスト教を信じているところが违っていました。


モ ンゴルの家族　歴史上の结婚関系と部族同盟これがムソルグスキーのオペラで有名なボリス?ゴドゥノフです。イワン雷帝亡きあと、その若い息子を杀したと悪 口を言われている人で、実际にはタタールではないのに、タタールと称したお荫で皇帝になることができました。ところで私は、モスクワの会议をテレビで见る のがとても好きです。「この人は何系かしら」「この人は何の血が入っていそう」とか、参加者のいろいろな颜を见て思う。ロシア人は、自分たちでは嫌かもし れないけれども、実际にはモンゴルと深い関系があります。


北欧与北亚，自古就是一个整体。自公元前3世纪匈奴时代起，蒙古人的祖先匈奴人便控制着从里海到长城的广大地域，包括今蒙古国、俄罗斯西伯利亚、中亚北部 以及满洲等地 区，蒙古的游牧民族不断与中亚、西亚、欧洲民族通婚融合。13世纪到至16世纪的蒙古金帐汗国控制着俄罗斯，以及后来的克里米亚汗国、喀山汗国、西 伯利亚汗国、阿斯特拉汗国、诺盖汗国、蓝帐汗国、白帐汗国等等这些蒙古汗国在现在的俄罗斯境内一直延续至18世纪末。而之后沙俄扩张至西伯利亚，当时的蒙 古就在沙俄的势力范围，一直到苏联解体的100多年的时间里，蒙古一直都是俄罗斯势力的一部分。

 
13 世纪前，日耳曼人的种族侵略波及欧洲各地，男性日耳曼人到处奸淫妇女，使得现代欧洲大陆上法、西、葡、意、巴尔干半岛以及英国的80%以上人的父系是日耳 曼人，莫斯科也没有幸免。考古基因研究发现，11世纪的莫斯科居民与8世纪的莫斯科居民，母系基因完全联系，就是东斯拉夫人，而父系基因有近半数改变。到 了13世纪，莫斯科及周边地区迎来了更强大的生殖侵略者，那就是蒙古人，蒙古人与日耳曼人、高加索人种之内的混血，是蒙古人种与高加索人种真正意义上的混 血，强盛的蒙古可汗甚至娶了拜占庭的公主。更致命的是，蒙古人还要当地妇女生下带有他们血统的孩子。 


120 年后，一个庞大的、父系是蒙古人，母系是欧洲各族人的新民族完全成熟，这就是有着部分高加索人外貌的鞑靼人。鞑靼人遍布东欧、南欧、中欧、西亚、中亚和北 亚，人数甚至超过了自认为是“纯种蒙古”的卫拉特人。13世纪后的俄罗斯族历史，实际就是一部分鞑靼族与另一部分鞑靼族混战的历史。 
 

■昭和の時代なのでハッキリと覚えていませんが、「金髪妻」か「金髪妾」という題名の３流ポルノ映画があったような記憶があります。この映画は見ていませんのでストーリーは知りませんが、多分現実的には一般の日本男性には手が届かない金髪の白人女性を扱った映画で、白人コンプレックスというか白人女性願望の日本人男性向けの妄想映画だったと思います。

しかし、あのルーシーを侵略、蹂躙したモンゴル人の場合は現実に「ルーシーの支配者」に成った訳ですから、北欧スウェーデン系のマリア・シャラポアとかシルヴィ・ヴァルタンのような女性を下の文にあるように「じっくりと眺めた」だけでそのまま手を付けずに紳士的に扱っていたとはとても思えません。ちょっと下品な表現に成りますが、ルーシーの白人女性をキプチャック汗国（ジュチウルス）のハーン達がやり捲った筈と思います。

モンゴルのハーンが金髪女性を朝貢の対象としてロシア人に義務付けた事は想像に難くありません。例えば(２)で「モスクワ公イワン一世（在位１３２５年～４１年）はモンゴルのハーンに賄賂を贈り」とありますが、賄賂の中身に金髪のルーシーの女性も当然の如く含まれていたでしょう。

そして、ルーシーの女性達がモンゴル人の性奴隷にされた事で、モンゴロイドにシンパシーを持ったり、残虐性、多淫性を持ったモンゴル人のDNAを受け継いだ今日のロシア人として確立されたものだと思います。

ただし、マリア・シャラポアの両親は沼沢が多かった為、モンゴル軍の強姦の被害に遭わなかったと言われている「ベラルーシ（純潔のロシア）」の出身ですので、スウェーデン人の形質が色濃く残っている女性だと思われます。 

ロシア人の金髪、青い目、白い肌という外見は、バトゥ・ハーンを魅了した。中国人ともインド人ともベルシア人とも、いや、それまで会ったどの民族とも違っていた。とくに目をひくロシア人奴隷がいると、バトゥは男であれ女であれ、自分の天幕につれてこさせ、そのなみはずれた美しさをじっくりとながめたものだった。

ロシア遠征の早い時期に、バトゥの兵士がオレーグという名の若いロシア人の命を助けたことがあった。バトゥはオレーグがとても美しいと思ったので、その捕虜を愛撫せずにはいられなかった。ハーンがオレーグをなではじめると、この若者はハーンの両手をはらいのけた。これでわれに返り、バトゥは護衛に命じてオレーグを外につれていかせ、殺させた。

ロシア人にとっては、モンゴル人は胸の悪くなるような存在だった。モンゴル人は「やせて、顔は青白く、骨ばった頬（ほお）は張り、鼻は短くゆがんでおり、あごは尖って目立ち、おとがいは低くくぼみ、歯は長く少ない」と評した記述も残っている。（転載ここまで）

そして別の本に書いてありましたが、ＤＮＡ調査でジンギスカンのDNAを持った子孫は今日世界中に１６００万人いるそうです。この意味は次のような事だと思います。モンゴル軍は侵略国で多くの女性を強姦しましたが、その地で「ハーン」に成った者及びその後継者は、ジンギスカンの末裔という事で、日本でいえば皇族のようなものです。そのような末裔の者達が侵略戦闘後のモンゴル兵士のように侵略地の女性を片っ端から強姦していたとはとても思えません。

１６００万人の意味は、創った多くの「汗（ハーン）国」でジンギスカンの末裔が「ハーン」として君臨した時、先述したように侵略国から処女の女性を毎年朝貢させた事でジンギスカンの遺伝子が増えて行ったと考えた方が自然だと思われます。

それと面白いのは、オゴディはモンゴルの都城カラコルムに居ながら、多くの侵略戦争の指揮を採りましたが、モンゴル軍がルーシー、東欧等で捕えた白人女性をオゴディの元に戦利品として献上したという文献を見た事がありません。今のモンゴルの人々の写真、動画を見ても白人との混血らしき人も皆無のようです。どうも、モンゴル人は侵略地で遺伝子をまき散らしただけで、自国にまでは戦利品献上の発想は無かったようです。 （私の勉強不足でそのような記述があるかも知れません）

■ロシア人の写真を見ても余りモンゴルの血（形質）を感じない人にお伝えします。確かに世界フィギアスケート２０１１でロシアの女性選手を見られていた人は分かったでしょうが、ロシア人は思ったほどモンゴル人の血が入っているようには見えません。政治家で言えばメドヴェージェフ大統領もそうです。

だが、人種の混血ではネグロイドはコーカソイド、モンゴロイドに対し明らかに優性ですが、モンゴロイドとコーカソイドの場合は、わずかにコーカソイドの遺伝子が優性のように思えます。　その例としてオバマ大統領と滝川クリステルを思い出して下さい。オバマ大統領ではネグロイドの滝川クリステルではコーカソイドの遺伝子が強く現われています。


蒙古人的入侵直接导致新民族鞑靼人的诞生，鞑靼族已成为今日俄罗斯联邦人口最多的少数民族 


英国《泰晤士报》1月19日报道，俄罗斯人原本并不容易醉酒，但是被蒙古人统治了数百年之后，由于通婚等原因，许多俄罗斯人身上留下了蒙古人的基因，因而 体内酒精的新陈代谢方式就与蒙古人一样，比其他欧洲人慢了许多，所以很容易醉酒。 　　 

俄 罗斯卫生部麻醉研究中心的专家们曾经进行了一系列实验，他们先让12名志愿者在一小时内喝下0．35公斤的伏特加酒，然后开始向他们提出 一些问题，组织他们玩电脑游戏，进行呼吸测试并观察他们的站姿。接着，志愿者们回宿舍睡觉。次日一早，在享用了丰盛早餐后，又接受了酒后影响测试。 　　 

结果，专家们发现，带有蒙古人基因的志愿者血液中酒精浓度比其他人高了一倍，由于体内酒精分解速度慢很多，他们醉得更厉害，表现为站不直，容易激动，思维混乱，甚至突然情绪低落。 　　 

该中心研究人员弗拉基米尔·努日内指出，早在13世纪，成吉思汗的后代已经率兵征服了俄罗斯大部分地区，并进行了长达两个多世纪的统治，在此期间，许多蒙古人与俄罗斯人通婚，因而他们的后代就带有了蒙古人基因。 　　 

专家们指出，俄罗斯气候严寒，所以人们被迫喝酒取暖；而且由于苏联解体后一度发生政治经济危机，不少人的生活陷入了困境，不得不通过大量饮酒来麻痹神经； 加上当地盛产伏特加烈酒，因而有蒙古基因的俄罗斯人喝得多、醉得快，结果给人们造成了“俄罗斯出酒鬼”的印象。

北亚游牧民族自古就是蒙古人种和高加索人种的混合体，匈奴帝国如此，蒙古帝国如此、俄罗斯也是如此。游牧帝国的特点：国土大、人口少、军力强、中央集权、扩张好战、欧亚人种混合。

历史上，瑞典、法国、德国，这些虎狼之师最终无不败在俄罗斯广袤的土地上。俄罗斯的强大，在于其自身的游牧民族基因---胜则毁灭一切，败则--飘然而 去，游牧民族不需要携带所有给养，抢掠是其主要供养方式，当他们失败时，因为游牧民族不存在"固定资产"，所以也没有必须要坚守的地盘，游牧民族可以凭借 其广袤的-草-原和沙漠拖死对手。 

19世纪法军远征与20世纪二战德军东侵，与俄罗斯人令人恐怖的一路狂奔，决定了战争的结果。即使这场战斗，也是蒙古佬库图佐夫公爵实行的。当那些鞑靼人 （欧洲人对俄--罗斯人的称呼）烧毁自己的家园与首都时，法国人反倒成为不远万里的消防队。从莫斯科到达波兰，一路上全是被冻死饿死的法军尸体。 

二战德苏战争，出现与法俄战争类似情况。在斯大林格勒会战中死亡达150万，大部分是被活活冻死与饿死的。四年时间里，数十次巨大的会战，与法军同样强大的德军被吞噬在俄--罗斯的冰天雪地。 

俄罗斯国土的大纵深让敌人犹如掉进泥沼，补给和兵力永远不足，俄罗斯人在面临最终失败时便实行焦土政策，这些正是游牧民族的抗敌方式，俄罗斯的广袤国土犹 如游牧民族的大草--原和沙漠，对手陷进去之后根本处在处处占领处处兵力不足处处四面楚歌的窘境，俄罗斯无边的国土和焦土政策让对手陷入弹尽粮绝的境地， 而焦土政策正是游牧民族战略大迁徙的-行-为。任何一个农业民族，或者后来的工业化国家都不能真正实行"焦土抗战"，只有俄罗斯能够做到这一点，俄罗斯的 游牧基因让其始终处于不败境地，这一点其他任何帝国都做不到-。 

而农耕民族天生的劣势就是其"固定资产"，农业民族必须保住其家园才能生存，往往是"全线防守，全线崩溃"，即使农业民族进攻游牧民族，面对游牧民族的机 动性和无边的草--原和沙漠，也没有足够的财力和人力去和游牧民族周旋到底。因此西汉倾全国力量仍无法击败匈奴，匈奴在此后仍然长期威胁著中国。明初朱元 璋朱棣征伐北元看似威风凛凛，实则-图-个面子风光，根本就不能击败对手，反而大明朝皇帝朱祁镇在不久之后被蒙古人捉走了。 

俄罗斯的征服史中完全继承了游牧民族彪悍的基因，凡是和俄罗斯交界的国家和民族无不受到严厉惩罚。欧洲殖民主义者是用野蛮的方式征服世界 的，但是没有一个最--终与俄罗斯人相似，因为欧洲殖民者尤其是英国人的行为属于资本主义商业诱惑的贪婪，其行事方式在一定程度上受到自身道德和价值观的 影响和鞭策。而俄罗斯根本不受任何约束-，-对俄罗斯来说，征服和掠夺才是普世价值，而这正是游牧民族与生俱来的理念。俄罗斯在扩张过程中也遭受过挫折甚 至暂时的失败，但是没有一个国家能够摧毁俄罗斯，俄罗斯人-正是-因为其游牧民族的基因才能够做到这一点。只有俄罗斯能够侵略邻国，而别国侵略俄国注定自 取灭亡。

装备现代科技的游牧民族继承者几乎横行天下，各大帝国绞尽脑汁试图制服俄罗斯这个游牧民族遗传下来的妖孽，拿破仑战败了，希特勒灭亡了，日本人失败了，英 国的战略围堵政策在一定程度上成功实施-，-将俄国围困在波罗的海、黑海、波斯湾、阿富汗、远东这一条防卫圈之内，美国也老老实实地实行英国的围堵政策， 在经历了无数的挫折后总算没让俄罗斯冲出包围圈，这也是全-人类-的幸事。但是，这些成功是建立在防守的前提下，假如英国人或美国人实行进攻政策的话，他 们即使再强大也注定要失败，因为被火器武装的游牧民族是真正的不败"金刚"，-你根本-无法打败它。



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　　本文参考资料： 

　　· 《The Mongol Empire’s Impacts on Russia》、《The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia》,by Dustin Hosseini
　　· 《蒙古帝国支配俄罗斯的影响》，作者：杜士丁·霍瑟尼（英国剑桥大学历史系教授）。

　　· 《The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order》,by Francis Fukuyama
　　· 《大分裂：人类本性与社会秩序的重建》，作者：弗朗西斯·福山（美国著名政治经济学者、康乃尔大学古典文献与政治学文学士、哈佛大学政治学博士）。

　　· 《Russian alcoholism and the "Mongoloid gene"》, The Times,19th Jan 2004
　　《俄罗斯人容易醉酒原因考证：蒙古人统治改变基因》，英国《泰晤士报》2004年1月19日。

　　· 《ロシアはモンゴル帝国支配の後遺症が》 、《蒙古源流》、《チンギス·ハーン》、《世界史の誕生》，岡田英弘
　　· 《俄罗斯：蒙古帝国支配的后遗症》、《蒙古源流》、《成吉思汗》、《世界史的诞生》，作者：冈田英弘（日本著名历史学者、东京外国语大学亚洲语言文化研究所教授、同大学名誉教授、专攻蒙古历史与日本古代史，在这一领域享有世界权威。）

　　· 《俄罗斯与蒙古·中世纪蒙古帝国对俄罗斯的冲击》，Charles J. Halperin 著 ， 中村正己 译

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英文相关资料：

Based on Francis Fukuyama, the Russian government strucuture is based on the traditional Mongol predatory techniques. Russia never had democracy. Stalin applied same government principles as the Mongols. And Putin is a 21st century Mongol, nothing else.

根据弗朗西斯·福山的看法，俄罗斯的政府结构建立在传统的蒙古式掠夺性方法之上。俄罗斯从未民主过。斯大林所采用的统治原则跟蒙古人一样。而普京就是一个21世纪的蒙古人，而非其他。

 

Now, because Russia is also a rich country, the Mongol in realises that in order for him to get legitimacy and love of his subjects, he is willing to trade this legitimacy against some distribution of wealth, that is why there are so low taxes and no significant debts to speak about.Therefore, the current Russian protest movement, while we have to applaud and encourage it, will never be able to beat the Mongol system.

现在，因为俄罗斯还是一个富裕的国家，领头的蒙古人意识到为了获得正统性和国民的爱戴，他必须分配出一部分财富。这就是现在低税负和低负债的原因。由于上述原因，现在的俄罗斯抗议活动，我们必须赞赏和鼓励的这些活动，却也无法打败这个蒙古体系。

 

After the publication of Putin's photos at a pro-Kremlin youth forum in a summer camp on Lake Seliger in the Russian Tver Region , 350 km north of Moscow, discussions about a strange unrecognizable face of the Russian leader erupted on Russian Internet blogs.

Many Russians state that Putin now has a Mongolian-type eye shape and cheek.

"Putin is a Mongol!", says a young Democratic opposition leader Roman Dobrokhotov who is also known in the West. Seeing a close-up photo of Putin with two narrow slits as eyelids, Mr. Dobrokhotov writes: "Botox is evil. A little more and he would have to hide his face behind a handkerchief, like Michael Jackson did".

     Source: Kavkaz Center

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当普京在谢利格尔湖（特维尔，莫斯科以北350公里）参加的pro-Kremlin青年论坛讨论会照片登出后，许多俄罗斯人指出普京现在拥有蒙古人的眼睛和颧骨。

“普京是蒙古人！”年轻的民主主义领袖罗曼·多布洛霍托夫指着照片上普京细小的眼睛说道。他写到：“伯托克斯是邪恶的，不一会他就会把他的脸藏在手绢后面，就像迈克·杰克迅那样。”

    来源：卡夫扎克中心

 

After the Mongol invasion of Russia, the Rurikid rulers of Russian principalities were eager to obtain political advantages for themselves and their countries by marrying into the House of Genghis. Alexander Nevsky was adopted by Batu Khan as his son. Alexander's grandson Yury of Moscow married a sister of Uzbeg Khan; however, they had no progeny. On the other hand, petty Mongol princelings of Genghisid stock sometimes settled in Russia. For instance, Berke's nephew adopted the Christian name Peter and founded St. Peter's Monastery in Rostov, where his descendants were long prominent as boyars.

The issue of three Russian-Mongol marriages may be traced down to the present. The most famous was the marriage of St. Fyodor the Black, later proclaimed a patron saint of Yaroslavl, to a daughter of the Mongol khan Mengu-Timur.[3] Fyodor's relations with the khan were idyllic: he spent more time in the Horde (where he was given extensive possessions) than in his capital. Male-line descendants of Fyodor's marriage to the Tatar princess include all the later rulers of Yaroslavl and two dozens princely families (such as the Shakhovskoy, Lvov, or Prozorovsky, among others), which passed Genghis genes to other aristocratic families of Russia.

Prince Gleb of Beloozero, a grandson of Konstantin of Russia, was another Rurikid prince influential at the Mongol court. Gleb married the only daughter of Khan Sartaq. From this marriage descends the House of Belozersk, whose scions include Princes Ukhtomsky and Beloselsky-Belozersky.
The most problematic is the marriage of Narimont, the second son of Gediminas of Lithuania, to Toqta's daughter. The earliest source for this marriage is the "Jagiellonian genealogy", compiled in the 18th-century from Ruthenian chronicles by one Joannes Werner. While the marriage is not utterly impossible (Narimont spent several years in the Horde), there are no extant chronicles which mention Narimont's wife. This highly uncertain gateway derives particular interest from the fact that the Galitzine, Khovansky and Kurakin princely families are Narimont's agnatic descendants.



《Russian alcoholism and the "Mongoloid gene"》 

SCIENTISTS researching cures for alcoholism and hangovers say that they have found a genetic link between Russians’ traditional weakness for drink and the marauding Mongol armies.

As many as 50 per cent of Muscovites are estimated to have inherited Mongol genes that make them absorb more alcohol into the bloodstream and break it down at a slower rate than most Europeans, they say.

That means that they get more drunk and have worse hangovers, and are more likely to become addicted to alcohol, given Russia’s taste for vodka, its harsh climate and the social and economic chaos after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

“The difference is huge — in reaction speed, memory, hand tremor — and in how they recover,” Vladimir Nuzhny, of the Health Ministry’s National Narcology Research Centre, said. “On average, 50 per cent of people in Moscow have this Mongoloid gene. So this, we think, is part of the problem.”

As part of the study, the scientists paid 12 volunteer students to drink 350 grams, about a third of a bottle, of vodka in an hour, and then monitored their behaviour.

“That’s a lot by Western standards, but it’s normal for Russia,” Dr Nuzhny told The Times. “At first they thought it was great, because they were being paid to drink, but after a while they realised it was more like work.”

The intoxicated students had to perform a series of tests, including answering questionnaires and playing rally-driving computer games, and they were breathalysed at regular intervals. The scientists even measured their ability to stand up straight.

After sleeping off the effects in a dormitory at the laboratory — which had a karaoke machine — the students were given a slap-up breakfast before doing more tests to measure their hangovers. The study showed that those with the Mongol genes absorbed 50 per cent more alcohol into the bloodstream at peak levels and metabolised it much more slowly than the other students.

“The way they get drunk is completely different. They are also more likely to feel aggressive or depressed,” Dr Nuzhny said. “They do not necessarily look Mongolian, but the gene that governs how they metabolise alcohol is Mongoloid.”

The Mongols swept across Asia and Russia and into Europe in the 13th century and ruled Russia for two centuries. Inter-marriage with the Slavs and other ethnic groups was common.

Scientists have long known that people of Mongol extraction, including Japanese,Koreans and Northern Chinese, have an enzyme for metabolising alcohol that is different from that of Caucasian Europeans.

Dr Nuzhny claims that his study is the first to look at the effect of alcohol on Russians who have inherited Mongol genes. He says that the phenomenon can be explained partly by evolution. The nomadic Mongols, whose only indigenous form of alcohol was fermented mare’s milk, evolved with a different enzyme from the settled Europeans, with their long tradition of producing stronger grape and grain-based alcohol.

Dr Nuzhny’s research is partly funded by pharmaceutical companies trying to develop drugs to cure hangovers and alcoholism.

Russians drink about 15 litres of pure alcohol a head each year, one of the highest rates in the world, and by some estimates one in seven Russians are alcoholics. Alcohol is largely to blame for a fall in life expectancy to less than 59 since the fall of the Soviet Union.




《The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia》 
                                                                         ---- By Dustin Hosseini

Introduction

The history of Russia has always been a relatively sad and tumultuous one wrought with wars, power struggles, and abrupt changes. These changes have often been forcibly thrust wholesale upon Russia, rather than evolving through gradual, measured methods as in most peoples’ histories. From an earlier time, in which we know Russia as ‘Kievan Rus,’ the princes of the various cities (such as Vladimir, Pskov, Suzdal, and Kiev) constantly battled and bickered for power and control of the small semi-united state. Under the reigns of St. Vladimir (980-1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1015-1054), the Kievan state was at its highest point and attained relative peace in contrast with years past. However, as history went, once the reigning rulers died, a power struggle ensued and wars once again flared.

It was perhaps the decision of Yaroslav the Wise before his death in 1054 to assign princedoms to his sons that set the future of Kievan Russia for the next two hundred years. Following this decision, civil wars between the various sons ravaged much of the Kievan confederation, draining it of essential resources it would later need. As the princes incessantly fought with each other, the confederation of cities known as the Kievan state slowly decayed, declined, and lost its former glory. Further weakened by the incursions of steppe tribes such as the Polovtsy (aka Cumans/Kumans or Kipchaks) and previously by the Pechenegs, eventually the Kievan state was ripe for a takeover by more powerful invaders from distant lands.

Yet before this, the Rus had a chance to change their fate. It was around 1219 when the Mongols first entered the areas nearest Kievan Russia in a move against the Polovtsy, who, in turn, asked for the assistance of the Rus princes. A council of princes convened in Kiev to consider the request, an act which worried the Mongols. According to historical sources, the Mongols declared that they had not attacked the cities or people of the Rus nor attacked their lands. The Mongol envoys requested peace of the Russian princes. Yet the princes did not trust the Mongols, suspecting that the Mongol advance would continue into Rus. Subsequently, the Mongol emissaries were promptly killed and any chance for peace was destroyed at the hands of the princes of the fractured Kievan state. Within twenty years, Batu Khan marched from Mongolia with an army of 200,000 men. One by one, Russian principalities such as Ryazan, Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal, and Rostov fell to the Batu and his armies. The armies looted and razed the cities, slaughtered the people, and took many as prisoners and slaves. The Mongols eventually captured, sacked, and destroyed Kiev, the symbolic center of Kievan Russia. Only outlying northwesterly principalities such as Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk survived the onslaught, though these cities would endure indirect subjugation and become tributaries of the Golden Horde. Perhaps a decision by the Russian princes to make peace could have averted this. However, that was not the case and for their miscalculations, Russia would be forever changed in terms of its religion, art, language, government, and political geography.
The Orthodox Church

With the initial Mongol onslaught, many churches and monasteries were looted and destroyed while countless adherents to the church and scores of clergy were killed; those who survived often were taken prisoner and enslaved (Dmytryshyn, 121). The mere shock of the force and size of the Mongol army was devastating. The distress was just as political and economic in nature as it was social and spiritual. The Mongol forces claimed that they were sent by God, and the Russians believed that the Mongols were indeed sent by God as a punishment for their sins. The Orthodox Church would become a powerful beacon during the “darker” years of the Mongol subjugation. The Russian people would eventually turn inward, seeking solace in their faith and looking to the Orthodox Church for guidance and support. The shock of being conquered by this steppe people would plant the seeds of Russian monasticism, which would in turn play a major role in the conversion of such people as the Finno-Ugrian tribes and the Zyrianians (now known as the Komi), as well as the colonization of the northern regions of Russia (Vernadsky, 379).  

The humiliation suffered by the princes and the town assemblies caused fragmentation of their political authority. This loss of political unity allowed the Church to rise as an embodiment of both religious and national identity while filling the gap of lost political identity (Riasanovsky, 57). The unique legal concept of iarlyk (pronounced ‘yarlīgh’), or charter of immunity, also contributed to the strengthening of the Church. With the reign of M?nke-Temür, a iarlyk was issued to Metropolitan Kirill for the Orthodox Church in 1267. While the church had been under the de facto protection of the Mongols ten years earlier (from the 1257 census conducted under Khan Berke), this iarlyk formally decreed protection for the Orthodox Church. More importantly, it officially exempted the church from any form of taxation by Mongol or Russian authorities (Ostrowski, 19). And permitted that clergymen not be registered during censuses and that they were furthermore not liable for forced labor or military service (Hosking, 57).

As expected, the result of the iarlyk issued to the Orthodox Church was profound. For the first time, the church would become less dependent on princely powers than in any other period of Russian history. The Orthodox Church was able to acquire and consolidate land at a considerable rate, one that would put the church in an extremely powerful position in the centuries following the Mongol takeover. The charter of immunity strictly forbade both Mongol and Russian tax agents from seizing church lands or demanding any services from the Orthodox Church. This was enforced by a simple penalty – death (Vernadsky, 377).

Another prominent reason the church developed so quickly laid in its mission – to spread Christianity and convert those still practicing paganism in the countryside. To strengthen the internal structure of the Orthodox Church, metropolitans traveled extensively throughout the land to alleviate administrative deficiencies and to oversee the activities of the bishops and priests. Moreover, the relative security (economic, military, and spiritual) surrounding hermitages lured peasants from the countryside. As this heightened urban development within the periphery of church properties destroyed the peaceful atmosphere the hermitage was originally established to give, members of the monastery would move further out into the wilderness to establish a new hermitage, beginning the process anew. This system of founding religious settlements continued for some time and contributed to the augmentation of the Orthodox Church (Vernadsky, 377-8).

One last significant change that occurred was the location of the center of the Orthodox Church. Before the Mongols invaded Russian lands, Kiev was the ecclesiastical center. Following the destruction of Kiev, the Holy See moved to Vladimir in 1299, and eventually to Moscow in 1322 (Hosking, 72), helping to bolster the importance of Moscow significantly.
Art

While the arts in Russia first suffered mass deportations of its artists, the monastic revival and the focus of attention that turned toward the Orthodox Church led to an artistic revival. What defined the Russians – at this crucial moment when they were without a state – was their Christianity and ability to express their devout beliefs. During this Time of Troubles, such great artists as Theophanes the Greek and Rublev came into play (Figes, 299-300).

It was during the second half of the Mongol rule in the mid-fourteenth century that Russian iconography and fresco painting began once again to flourish. Theophanes the Greek arrived in the late 1300s. He decorated and worked on various churches throughout the land, especially in Novgorod and Nizhniy Novgorod. In Moscow, he painted the iconostasis for the Church of the Annunciation as well as worked on the Church of the Archangel Michael (Martin, 233). A few decades after Theophanes’ arrival, Rublev would become one of his most aspiring and important students. Iconography came to Russia from Byzantium in the tenth century, but the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century cut Russia off from Byzantium.

Language

While the linguistic effects may seem at first trivial, such impacts on language help us to determine and understand to what extent one empire had on another people or group of people – in terms of administration, military, trade – as well as to what geographical extent the impact included. Indeed, the linguistic and even socio-linguistic impacts were great, as the Russians borrowed thousands of words, phrases, other significant linguistic features from the Mongol and the Turkic languages that were united under the Mongol Empire (Dmytryshyn, 123). Listed below are a few examples of some that are still in use. All came from various parts of the Horde.

    амбар                          ambar                                    barn
    базар                          bazar                                     bazaar
    деньги                        den’gi                                     money
    лошадь                       loshad‘                                    horse
    сундук                        sunduk                                   truck, chest
    таможня                      tamozhnya                              customs

One highly important colloquial feature of the Russian language of Turkic origin is the use of the word давай which expresses the idea of ‘Let’s…’ or ‘Come on, let’s...’ (Figes, 370-1). Listed below are a few common examples still found commonly in Russian.

    Давай чай попьем.              Davai chai popem.             ‘Let’s drink some tea.’
    Давай выпьем!                    Davai vypem!                   ‘Come on, let’s get drunk!’
    Давай пойдём!                    Davai poidyom!                 ‘Come on, let’s go!’

In addition, there are dozens of place names of Tatar/Turkic origin in southern Russia and the lands of the Volga River that stand out on maps of these areas. City names such as Penza, Alatyr, and Kazan’ and names of regions such as Chuvashia and Bashkortostan are examples.  

Administration and Institutions

Images of totalitarianism spring to mind when one at first ponders that which is Russia: from the current times of Vladimir Putin’s presidency, to when the Soviet Union was still a nation, and even before to Imperial Russia. However, in Kievan Rus, a form of democracy did exist. Comprised of all free male citizens, the veche (вече) was a town assembly that met to discuss such matters as war and peace, law, and invitation or expulsion of princes to the veche’s respective town; all cities in Kievan Russia had a veche. It was essentially a forum for civic affairs to discuss and resolve problems. However, this democratic institution suffered severe curtailment under the Mongols.

By far the most influential of the assemblies were in Novgorod and Kiev. In Novgorod, a special veche bell (in other towns, church bells were ordinary used for this purpose) was created for calling the townspeople together for an assembly, and in theory, anyone could ring it. In the times after the Mongols had conquered the majority of Kievan Russia, veches ceased to exist in all cities except Novgorod, Pskov, and others in the northwestern regions. Veches in those cities continued to function and develop until Moscow itself subjugated them in the late fifteenth century. However, today the spirit of the veche as a public forum has been revived in several cities across Russia, including especially Novgorod.

Of great importance to the Mongol overlords was census tabulation, which allowed for the collection of taxes. To support censuses, the Mongols imposed a special dual system of regional administration headed by military governors, the basqaqi (баскаки), and/or civilian governors, the darugi (даругы). Essentially, the basqaqi were given the responsibility of directing the activities of rulers in the areas that were resistant or had challenged Mongol authority. The darugi were civilian governors that oversaw those regions of the empire that had submitted without a fight or that were considered already pacified to Mongol forces (Ostrowski, 273). However, the offices of the basqaqi and the darugi, while occasionally overlapping in authority and purpose did not necessarily always rule at the same time.

As we know from history, the ruling princes of Kievan Russia did not trust the Mongolian ambassadors that came to discuss peace with them in the early 1200s; the princes regrettably put the ambassadors of Genghis Khan to the sword and before long paid dearly. Thus, in the thirteenth century the basqaqi were stationed in the conquered lands to subjugate the people and authorize even the day-to-day activities of the princes. Furthermore, in addition to ensuring the the census, the basqaqi oversaw conscription of the local populace (Martin, 150).  

Existing sources and research indicates that the basqaqi had largely disappeared from the Rus’ lands by the mid-fourteenth century, as the Rus more or less accepted the Mongol overlords. As the basqaqi left, the darugi replaced them in power. However, unlike the basqaqi, the darugi were not based in the confines of the lands of the Rus; in fact, they were stationed in Sarai, the old capital of the Golden Horde located not far from present-day Volgograd. The darugi functioned mainly as experts on the lands of the Rus’ and advised the khan accordingly. While the responsibility of collecting and delivering tribute and conscripts had belonged to the basqaqi, with the transition from the basqaqi to the darugi these duties we actually transferred to the princes themselves when the khan saw that the princes could complete such tasks (Martin, 151).


The first census taken by the Mongols occurred in 1257, just seventeen years after their conquest of Rus’ lands. The population was divided into multiples of ten, a system that had been employed by the Mongols who extended its use over the entirety of their empire; the census served as the primary purpose for conscription as well as for taxation. This practice was carried on by Moscow after it stopped acknowledging the Horde in 1480. The practice fascinated foreign visitors to Russia, to whom large-scale censuses were still unknown. One such visitor, Sigismund von Herberstein from Hapsburg made note of the fact that every two or three years, the prince conducted a census throughout the land (Wittfogel, 638). Census taking would not become widespread in Europe until the early 19th century. One significant observation that we must make is that the extent to which the Russians so thoroughly conducted the census was not achieved elsewhere in Europe for another 120 years or so, during the Age of Absolutism. The impact of the Mongol Empire at least in this area was obviously deep and effective and helped to create a strong central government for Russia.   

One important institution that the basqaqi oversaw and maintained was the yam (a system of posts), which was constructed to provide food, bedding, horses, and either coaches or sleds, according to the season (Hosking, 89). At first constructed by the Mongols, the yam allowed relatively rapid movement of important communiqués between the khans and their local leaders, as well as a method of quickly dispatching envoys, local or foreign, between the various principalities across the vast the empire. Each post had horses ready for use by authorized persons as well as to replace tired horses for especially long journeys. Each post was usually located about a day’s ride from the nearest post. The local people were obliged to maintain the posts, to feed the horses, and to meet the needs of emissaries traveling through their posts.

The system was quite efficient. Another report by emissary Sigismund von Herberstein of the Hapsburgs stated that the yam system allowed him to travel 500 kilometers (from Novgorod to Moscow) within 72 hours – much faster than anywhere in Europe (Wittfogel, 639-40). The yam system helped the Mongols to maintain tight control over their empire. During the twilight years of the Mongol’s hold on Russia in the late fifteenth century, Prince Ivan III decided to continue the use of the idea of the system of the yam in order to keep an established system of communication and intelligence. However, the idea of a postal system as we know it today would not come into existence until after the death of Peter the Great in the early 1700s.

Some such institutions brought to Russia by the Mongols transformed to meet Russian needs over time and lasted for many centuries after the Golden Horde. These greatly augmented the development and expansion of the intricate bureaucracy of the later, imperial Russia.
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